Chapter 1- The Nature of
Life
- The goal of science is
to investigate and understand nature, to explain events in nature, and to use
those explanations to make useful predictions.
- Science
is an organized way of using evidence to learn
about the natural world.
- Observation
involves using 1 or more of the senses to
gather info
- Data
is info gathered from observations called
evidence/data.
- How do you interpret
the evidence?
- Inference
is a logical interpretation based on
prior knowledge and experience.
- How do you explain
the evidence?
- Hypothesis
is a possible explanation for a set of
observations or an answer to a scientific question.
- How to design an
experiment?
- Hypothesis
- Set up a controlled
experiment
- Change the variable
in your test (only 1 variable)
- Record/Analyze the
results from the experiment
- Draw a conclusion
- Whenever possible, a
hypothesis should be tested by an experiment in which 1 variable is changed at
a time. All other variables should be kept unchanged, or controlled
- Spontaneous
generation is a hypothesis
(disproved) stating that life could arise from nonliving matter
- Manipulated variable
(Independent Variable [IV]) is a
factor in a experiment that a scientist purposely changes
- Responding Variable
(Dependent Variable [DV]) is a
factor in a experiment that scientist wants to observe. Which may change in
response to the IV
- What do you do when
experiments are not possible?
- Try an alternate
investigation. It is not always possible to test a hypothesis.
- Theory
is a well-tested explanation that unifies a
broad range of observation.
- Biology
is the science that seeks to understand the
living world
- What are
characteristics of Living Things?
- Living things are made
up of units called cells
- Living things
reproduce
- Living things are
based on a universal genetic code
- Living things grow and
develop
- Living things obtain
and use materials and energy
- Living things respond
to their environment
- Living things maintain
a stable internal environment
- Taken as a group,
living things change over time.
- A cell is a
collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier that separates the cell from
its surroundings
- Sexual reproduction
is 2 cells from different parents
unite to produce the first cell of the new organism.
- Asexual reproduction
the new organism has a single
parent
- Metabolism
is a set of chemical reactions through
which an organism builds up or breaks down materials as it carries out its
life process.
- Homeostasis
is the process by which organisms keep
their internal conditions relatively stable.
- To Evolve is to
change over time
- What are the braches
of Biology?
- The Many Levels at
which life can be studied include molecules, cells, organisms, populations
of a single organism, communities of populations living in the same area,
and the biosphere.
- What is a common
measurement system?
- Metric system
is a decimal system of
measurement whose units is based on a certain physical standards and is
scaled on multiples of 10.
- How do you analyze
biological data?
- Record the data in a
table and then make a graph.
- Microscopes
are devices that produce magnified images
of structures that are too small to see with the unaided eye
- Compound Light
Microscopes allow light to pass
through the specimen and use 2 lenses on image
- Electron Microscopes
focus beams of electrons on
specimens to form an image
- What are 2 lab
techniques?
- Cell structures
- Cell Fractionation
- Cell culture
is a group of cell growth in a nutrient
solution from a single original cell
- Cell fractionation
is a technique in which cells are
broken into pieces and the different cell parts are separated.
Chapter 2- The Chemistry of Life
- An Atom is the
basic unit of matter. Includes parts such as a nucleus: protons, electrons,
and neutrons.
- A nucleus is the
center of a atom in which holds protons & neutrons.
- Electrons
are a negatively charged particle (-) with
1/1840 the mass pf a proton. Always in motion surrounding the nucleus but
remain outside.
- What property do
elements & isotopes have?
- Because they have the
same number of electrons & protons, all isotopes of an element have the same
chemical properties.
- An element is a
substance consisting entirely of one type of atom
- An isotope is an
atom of an element that has a number of neutrons different from that of other
atoms of the same element.
- What are the main
types of chemical bonds?
- Ionic bond
which is a bond formed when 1 or more
electrons are transferred from one atom to another
- Covalent bond
which is a bond formed by
the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
- A molecule is the
smallest unit of most compounds
- Van der Waals Forces
are a slight attraction that
develops between the oppositely charges regions of nearby molecules
- What is a Water
Molecule?
- H20
is neutral (10 protons and 10 electrons). The oxygen atom has a much
stronger attraction than the hydrogen atom. The charges are uneven which is
called a Polar molecule. A water molecule is polar because there is an
uneven distribution between the oxygen and the hydrogen atoms.
- Cohesion
is an attraction between molecules of the same
substance.
- Adhesion
is an attraction between molecules of
different substances
- Solutions
are a mixture 2 or more substances in which
the molecules of the substances are evenly distributed.
- Solute
is a substance that is dissolved in a
solvent to make a solution
- Solvent
is a substance in which a solute is
dissolved to form a solution
- Suspensions
are mixtures of water and nondissolved
materials
- pH Scale
is a measurement system used to indicate the
concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) in solutions; ranges from 0 to 14
- An Acid is a
compound that forms hydrogen ions (H+) in solutions. On pH Scale 0-6
- A base is a
compound that produces hydroxide ions (OH-ions) in solutions. On pH Scale
7-14
- Buffers
are weak acids or bases that can react with
strong acids or bases to help prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH.
- Monomers
are small units that can join together with
other small units to from polymers
- Polymers
are large compounds from combinations of many
monomers
- What are
Carbohydrates?
- Carbohydrates
are compounds made up of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
- Monosaccharides
are a single sugar molecule.
They are the monomer of the Carbohydrates.
- Polysaccharides
are a large macromolecule
formed from monosaccharides. They are the polymers of the Carbohydrates.
- What are Lipids?
- Lipids
are macromolecules made mainly from carbon
and hydrogen atoms; include fats, oils, and waxes
- Nucleic Acids
are macromolecules containing hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. They store hereditary or genetic
info. There are 2 kinds; ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA).
- Nucleotide
is a monomer of nucleic acids made up of
a –5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
- Protein
is a macromolecule that contains carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth and to make up
enzymes. * Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell
processes. Some are used for bone and muscles. Others transport substances
into or out of the cell or help fight disease.
- Amino Acids
are compounds with an amino group (-NH2)
on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
- What do chemical
reactions involve?
- They involve the
breaking down of bonds in reactants and the formation of new bonds in
products.
- Chemical Reactions
are processes that change 1 set of
chemicals into another set of chemicals.
- Reactants
are elements or compounds that enters into a
chemical reaction
- Products
are the elements or compounds produced by a
chemical reaction.
- EXAMPLE OF CHEMICAL
REACTION:
CO2
+ H2O
H2CO3
H2CO3
CO2 + H2O
- What are enzymes?
- Enzymes
are proteins that act as biological
catalysts.
- Catalysts
are substances that speed up chemical
reactions that take place in the cells.
- Substrates
are the reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed
reaction.
Common Metric
Units
LENGTH MASS
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters
(cm) 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
1
meter = 1000 millimeters (mm) 1 gram = 1000
milligrams (mg)
1000 meters = 1 kilometer (km)
1000 kilograms = 1 metric ton (t)
Volume
TEMPERATURE
1
liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL)
0°C= freezing point of water
1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3)
100°C= boiling point of water

Chapter 7-Cells
- What is “Cell
theory”?
- All living things are
composed of cells
- Cells are the basic
units of structure & function in living things
- New cells are produced
from existing cells
- A cell is a
collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier the separates the cell from
its surroundings; basic unit of all forms of life.
- What are the basic
cell structures?
- Cell membrane
is a thin, flexible barrier around a cell; regulates what enters and exits the
cell
- Cell wall
is a strong layer around the cell membrane in
plants
- A nucleus is a
small, dense region within most nuclei in which the assembly of ribosome
begins
- Cytoplasm
is the material inside the cell membrane—but
not including the nucleus
- Prokaryotes
are singe-celled micro organisms that
lacks of a nucleus
- Eukaryotes
are organisms whose cells contain nuclei
- An organelle is a
specialized structure that performs important cellular functions within the
eukaryotic cell
- What is the main
function of the cell wall?
- Is to provide support
and protection for the cell
- What does the nucleus
control?
- It controls the cell
processes and contains the hereditary info of the DNA
- The granular material
visible within the nucleus is call chromatin. It’s consisting of DNA
bound to protein.
- When a cell divides,
chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. These are distinct,
threadlike structures containing the genetic info that is passed from 1
generation to the next.
- Most nuclei also contain
a small, dense region known as nucleolus. The function is to begin
the assembly of ribosomes
- A double-membrane layer
called the nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus. It allows
material to move into and out of the nucleus.
- The cytoskeleton
helps to support the cell. It is a network of protein filaments that helps
the cell maintain its shape. It is also involved in many forms of cell
movement.
- Microtubules
are hollow tubes of protein. They are
within the cytoskeleton.
- Microfilaments
are long, thin fibers that function in the
movement and support of the cell.
- Proteins are assembled
on ribosomes. They are small particles made of RNA and protein. They
produce protein following coded instructions that from the nucleus.
- Eukaryotic cells also
contain an internal membrane system known as the endoplasmic reticulum,
or ER. The endoplasmic reticulum is the organelle in which components
of the cell membrane are assembled and some proteins are modified.
- Proteins produced by the
rough endoplasmic reticulum move into a stack of membranes called the Golgi
apparatus. Enzymes in the GA attach carbohydrates and lipids to
proteins.
- Lysosomes
are small organelles filled with enzymes. 1
function is to break down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins from food into
particles that can be used by the rest of the cell.
- Cells often store
materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates in saclike
structures known as vacuoles.
- The chloroplasts
are found in plants and some other organisms. Chloroplasts use energy from
the sunlight to make energy-rich food molecules in a process known as
photosynthesis.
- The mitochondria
are organelles that release energy from stored food molecules. Mitochondria
use energy from food to make high-energy compounds that the cell can use to
power growth, development, and movement.
- The core of nearly all
cell membranes is a double-layered sheet called a liquid bilayer. It
gives the cell membrane a tough, flexible structure that forms a strong
barrier between the cell and its surroundings.
- Diffusion
is the process by which molecules move from an
area where they are more concentration to an area of lower concentration.
- Concentration
the mass of solute in a given volume of
solution, or mass/volume
- Selectively permeable
is when membranes only allow
certain substances to pass through
- Osmosis
is the diffusion of water through the
selectively permeable membrane
- Facilitated diffusion
is the movement of specific
molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
- Active transport
is a energy-requiring process that
moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
- Endocytosis
is a process by which a cell takes
material into the cell by enfolding of the cell membrane
- Phagocytosis
is a process by which extensions of
cytoplasm surround & engulf large particles & take them into the cell
- Exocytosis
is a process by which a cell releases
large amounts of material
- Multicellular organisms
have cell specialization, or separate roles for each type of cell.
Cells in multicellular organisms are specialized to perform particular
functions with the organisms.
- What are the levels
of organization in multicellular organisms?
- Individual cells,
tissues, organs, and organ systems
- Tissue
is a group similar to cells that perform a
particular function
- Organs
are a group of tissues that work together to
perform closely related functions
- Organ system
is a group of organs that work together to
perform a specific function
Chapter 8- Photosynthesis
- Where do plants get
the energy they need to produce food?
- Autotrophs
are organisms that can capture energy and
make food from sunlight.
- Heterotrophs
are organisms that cannot produce their
own food so they consume it from other organisms
- Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is one of the
principal chemical compounds that living things use to store energy.
- What is the equation
for photosynthesis?
- 6CO2
+ 6H2O C6H1206
+ 6O2
- Carbon dioxide +
water which light makes glucose + oxygen
- What does
photosynthesis require?
1.
H2O
2.
Carbon
3.
Light
4.
Chlorophyll
- Chlorophyll
is a principal pigment of plants and other
photosynthetic organisms; captures light energy.
- Pigments
are a light-absorbing colored molecule
- Tlylakoids
are a saclike body in chloroplast made of photosynthetic membranes that
contain photo systems
- A stroma is a
region outside the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts
- NADP+ (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide) is a electron
carrier involved in glycolysis
- Light-dependent
reactions are reactions of
photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH
- What do
light-dependent reactions do?
- They produce oxygen
gas and converts ADP and NADP+ inot energy carriers ATP and NADPH
- ATP synthase
is a large protein that uses energy from
H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP
- The Calvin Cycle
are reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to
build high-energy compounds such as sugars
- What does the Calvin
Cycle use and produce?
- It uses ATP and NADPH
from the light-dependent reactions
- It produces
high-energy sugars
Chapter 9-Cellular Respiration
- A calorie is the
amount of energy needed to raise temperature of 1g of water 1 Celsius Degree
- Cellular respiration
is the process that releases energy
by breaking down food molecules in the presence oxygen
- What is the equation
for C.R?

6O2 + C6H12O6
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
- oxygen +
glucose Carbon dioxide + water +
energy
- Glycolysis
is the process in which 1 molecule of
glucose is broken in half, producing 1 molecule of pyruvic acid (a 3-carbon
compound). Takes place in the cytosol. It makes 2 ATP and loads buses (NAD+
à
NADH).
- 6 glucose goes in and
2 ATP, 2 buses filled, 2 pyruvic made
- NAD+
is an electron carrier in the process of
glycolysis
- Fermentation
releases energy from food molecules in the
absence of oxygen
- What are the 2 main
types of fermentation?
- What does Alcoholic
fermentation involve and what is its chemical equation?
- Yeasts and other
organisms
- Pyruvic acid + NADH
alcohol + CO2 + NAD+
- What does Lactic Acid
involve and what is its chemical equation?
- Muscles
- Pyruvic acid + NADH
lactic acid + NAD+
- A stage of C.R. is the
Kreb’s Cycle. During the Kreb’s Cycle, pyruvic acid is broken down
into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions. It takes
place in the matrix (middle area of the mitochondrion). The Kreb’s Cycle
generates up to 2 ATP.
- Acetyl and CO2
is thrown out in beginning of cycle, extra go on buses
- Recharges ATP
- Aerobic
means to require oxygen
- After the Kreb’s Cycle
comes the Electron Transport Chain (ETC). The ETC uses the high-energy
electrons from the Kreb’s Cycle to convert ADP into ATP. ATP synthase is
involved with converting ADP into ATP. Electrons power H+ ions to power the
ATP synthase, which makes ATP. The electrons go along the chain (of proteins)
on NADH and FADH2.
Chapter 10- Cell Growth and Division
·
What problems does growth cause
for cells?
o
The larger a cell becomes, the
more demands the cell places on its DNA and the more trouble the cell has moving
enough nutrient and wastes across the cell membrane
·
Cell division
is a process by which a cell divides into 2 new
daughter cells
·
Surface area of a cell =
(length x width x 6)
·
Volume of a cell =
(length x width x height)
·
Ratio of surface area to volume
= SA divided by V =?:?
·
Chromatids
are one of two identical sister parts of a
duplicated chromosome
·
Centromere
is an area where the chromatids of a chromosome
are attached
·
Interphase
is the period of the cell cycle between cell
divisions
·
What happens during the cell
cycle?
o
A cell grows, prepares fro
divisions, and divides to form 2 daughter cells each of which then begins the
cycle again
·
How do biologist divide the
events of mitosis?
o
They divide mitosis into 4 phases
1.
Prophase
2.
Metaphase
3.
Anaphase
4.
Telophase
·
Prophase
is the 1st and longest stage of
mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate
and take up positions on opposite sides of the nucleus
·
Centrioles
are one of two tiny structures located in the
cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope
·
Spindles
are fanlike microtubules structures that help
separate the chromosomes during mitosis
·
Metaphase
is the 2nd phase of mitosis, during
which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
·
Anaphase
is the 3rd phase of mitosis, during
which the chromosome pairs separate and move towards opposite poles
·
Telophase
is the 4th and final stage of
mitosis, during which the chromosomes begin to disperse into a tangle of dense
material
·
Cytokinesis
is the division of the cytoplasm during cell
division
·
Cyclin
is one of a family of closely related proteins
that regulate the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells
·
Cancer
is a disorder in which some of the body’s own
cells lose the ability to control growth
·
What happens with cancer in
cells
o
Cancer cells do not respond to the
signals that regulate the growth of most cells. As a result, they form masses
of cells called tumors that can damage the surrounding tissues
·
Promoters
are the regions of DNA that indicates to an
enzyme where to bind to make RNA
·
Introns
are intervening sequences of DNA; does not code
for a protein
·
Exons
expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein
·
Codons
are 3-nucleotide sequences on a mRNA that codes
for a single amino acids
·
Translation
is the decoding of a mRNA message into a
polypeptide chain
o
During which, the cell uses info
from mRNA to produce proteins
·
Anticodon
is a group of 3 bases on a tRNA molecule that
are complementary to an mRNA codon
·
Mutation
is the change in a DNA sequence that affects
genetic info
·
What do gene mutations result
from?
o
Results from changes in a single
gene. Chromosomal mutations involve changes in whole chromosomes
·
Point mutations
are mutations that affect a single nucleotide,
usually by substituting one nucleotide for another
·
Frame-shift mutations
are mutations that shift the reading frame of the genetic message by inserting
or deleting a nucleotide
·
An operon is group of genes
operating together
·
How are lac genes turned
off?
o
They are turn off by repressors
and turned on by the presence of lactose
·
An operator is a region of
chromosome in a operon to which the repressor binds when is turned off
·
What is Eukaryotic Gene
Regulation?
o
Most Eukaryotic genes are
controlled individually and have regulatory sequences that are much more complex
than those of the lac operon
·
Hox genes
are a series of genes that control the organs
and tissues that develop in various parts of an embryo
Chapter 12- DNA & RNA
·
Transformation
is the process by which 1 strain of bacteria is
changed by a gene from another strain of bacteria
·
What did Avery and other
scientists discover?
o
They discovered that DNA is the
nucleic acid that stores and transmits the genetic info from 1 generation of an
organism to the next
·
Bacteriophage
is a virus that infects bacteria
·
What did Hershey and Chase
conclude?
o
They concluded that the genetic
material of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein
·
Nucleotides
are the monomers of nucleic acids that are made
up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
·
What are Chargaff’s Rules?
o
A=T and G=C
o
Adenine = Thymine & Guanine =
Cytosine
·
What did Watson & Crick
discover?
o
They discovered that the model of
DNA was a double-helix, in which 2 strands of DNA were would around each other
·
Base pairing
is the principle that bonds in DNA can form only
between adenine and thymine and also between guanine and cytosine
·
Chromatin
is a granular material visible within the
nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins
·
Histone
is a globular protein molecule around which DNA
is tightly coiled in chromatin
·
Replication
is the copying process by which a cell
duplicates its DNA
·
What happens in DNA
replication?
o
The DNA molecule separates into 2
strands
o
Then produces 2 new complementary
strands following the rules of base pairing
o
Each strand of the double-helix of
DNA serves as a template, or model, for the new strand
·
DNA polymerase
is an enzyme that proofreads new DNA strands,
helping to ensure that each molecule is a nearly perfect copy of the original
·
What are the 3 main types of
RNA
o
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
o
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
o
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
·
Messenger RNA
is a RNA molecule that carries copies of
instructions for the assembly of amino-acids into proteins from DNA to the rest
of the cell
·
Ribosomal RNA
is a type of RNA that makes up the major part of
ribosomes
·
Transfer RNA
is a type of RNA that transfers amino-acids to
ribosomes during Protein Synthesis
·
Transcription
is a process by which part of the nucleotide
sequence of DNA is copied into a complementary sequence in RNA
·
RNA polymerase
is an enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that
binds to DNA & separates the DNA strands during transcription
·
What goes on during
transcription?
o
During transcription, RNA
polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses
1 strand of DNA as template from which nucleotides are assembled into a new
strand of RNA
·
What happens in cell
transformation?
o
A cell takes in DNA from outside
the cell. This external DNA becomes a part of the cells DNA
·
A plasmid is a circular DNA
molecule found in bacteria
·
A genetic marker is a gene
that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carries a plasmid with
foreign DNA from those that don’t
·
What happens if transformation
is successful?
o
The recombinant DNA is integrated
into one of the chromosomes of the cell
o
Recombinant technology
is combining DNA from 2 or more species to
make a product molecule.
Chapter 18- Classification and Chapter 19- Viruses
·
How are living things organized
for study?
o
To study the diversity of life,
biologists use a classification system to name organisms and group them in a
logical manner
·
In taxonomy, scientists
classify organisms and assign each organisms a universally accepted name
·
Binomial nomenclature
is the classification system in which each
species is assigned a 2-part scientific name
·
Genus
is a group closely related species, first part
of the scientific name in binomial nomenclature
·
Taxon
is a group or level of organization into which
organisms are classified
·
What is Linnaeus’s system?
o
Its uses 7 taxonomic categories.
Therefore, from smallest to largest; species, genus, family, order, class,
phylum, and kingdom
·
Family
is a group genera that share many
characteristics
·
Order
is a group of similar families
·
Class
is a group if similar orders
·
Phylum
is a group of closely related classes
·
Kingdom
is the largest taxonomic group, consisting of
closely related phyla.
·
What is the 6-kingdom system of
classification?
o
It includes the kingdoms
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia
·
Domain
is the most exclusive taxonomic category; layer
than a kingdom
·
What are the 3 domains?
o
Bacteria, which corresponds to the
kingdom Eubacteria
o
Archaea, which corresponds to the
kingdom Archaebacteria
o
Eukarya, which is composed of
Protists, Fungi, plants and animals
·
Bacteria
is the domain of unicellular prokaryotes whose
cell walls contains peptideoglycan
·
Eubacteria
kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes that have
cell walls that do not contain peptideoglycan
·
Archaebacteria
kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes that have
cells walls that don no contain peptideoglycan
·
Eukarya
domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei,
including Protists, Fungi, plants and animals
·
Protista-
kingdom composed of eukaryotes that are
not classified as plants, animals, or fungi
·
Fungi-
kingdom composed of heterotrophs; many obtain energy and nutrients from dead
organic matter
·
Plantae-
multicellular photosynthetic autotrophs that have cell walls containing
cellulose
·
Animalia-
kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophs
whose cells do not have cell walls
·
Prokaryotes-
are single celled organisms that lack a nucleus
·
Viruses
are particles made up of nucleic acid, and in
some cases lipids, that can replicate only by inflecting living cells
o
A typical virus is composed of a
core of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat
·
A Capsid is the outer
protein coat of a virus
Chapter 35.1
- Homeostasis
- Thermoregulation
- Cells, tissues, organs,
organ systems, organism