Chapter 1- The Nature of Life

• The goal of science is to investigate and understand nature, to explain events in nature, and to use those explanations to make useful predictions.
• Science is an organized way of using evidence to learn about the natural world.
• Observation involves using 1 or more of the senses to gather info
• Data is info gathered from observations called evidence/data.
• How do you interpret the evidence?
  • Inference is a logical interpretation based on prior knowledge and experience.
• How do you explain the evidence?
  • Hypothesis is a possible explanation for a set of observations or an answer to a scientific question.

• How to design an experiment?

1. Hypothesis
2. Set up a controlled experiment
   • Change the variable in your test (only 1 variable)
3. Record/Analyze the results from the experiment
4. Draw a conclusion
• Whenever possible, a hypothesis should be tested by an experiment in which 1 variable is changed at a time.  All other variables should be kept unchanged, or controlled 
• Spontaneous generation is a hypothesis (disproved) stating that life could arise from nonliving matter
• Manipulated variable (Independent Variable [IV]) is a factor in a experiment that a scientist purposely changes
• Responding Variable (Dependent Variable [DV]) is a factor in a experiment that scientist wants to observe.  Which may change in response to the IV
• What do you do when experiments are not possible?
  1. Try an alternate investigation.  It is not always possible to test a hypothesis.
• Theory is a well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observation.
• Biology is the science that seeks to understand the living world
• What are characteristics of Living Things?
  1. Living things are made up of units called cells
  2. Living things reproduce
  3. Living things are based on a universal genetic code
  4. Living things grow and develop
  5. Living things obtain and use materials and energy
  6. Living things respond to their environment
  7. Living things maintain a stable internal environment
  8. Taken as a group, living things change over time.
• A cell is a collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier that separates the cell from its surroundings
• Sexual reproduction is 2 cells from different parents unite to produce the first cell of the new organism.
• Asexual reproduction the new organism has a single parent
• Metabolism is a set of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials as it carries out its life process.
• Homeostasis is the process by which organisms keep their internal conditions relatively stable.
• To Evolve is to change over time
• What are the braches of Biology?
  1. The Many Levels at which life can be studied include molecules, cells, organisms, populations of a single organism, communities of populations living in the same area, and the biosphere.
• What is a common measurement system?
  1. Metric system is a decimal system of measurement whose units is based on a certain physical standards and is scaled on multiples of 10.
• How do you analyze biological data?
  1. Record the data in a table and then make a graph.
• Microscopes are devices that produce magnified images of structures that are too small to see with the unaided eye
• Compound Light Microscopes allow light to pass through the specimen and use 2 lenses on image
• Electron Microscopes focus beams of electrons on specimens to form an image
• What are 2 lab techniques?
  1. Cell structures
  2. Cell Fractionation
• Cell culture is a group of cell growth in a nutrient solution from a single original cell
• Cell fractionation is a technique in which cells are broken into pieces and the different cell parts are separated.

Chapter 2- The Chemistry of Life

• An Atom is the basic unit of matter.  Includes parts such as a nucleus: protons, electrons, and neutrons.
• A nucleus is the center of a atom in which holds protons & neutrons.
• Electrons are a negatively charged particle (-) with 1/1840 the mass pf a proton.  Always in motion surrounding the nucleus but remain outside.
• What property do elements & isotopes have?
  • Because they have the same number of electrons & protons, all isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties.
• An element is a substance consisting entirely of one type of atom
• An isotope is an atom of an element that has a number of neutrons different from that of other atoms of the same element.
• What are the main types of chemical bonds?
  • Ionic bond which is a bond formed when 1 or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
  • Covalent bond which is a bond formed by the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
• A molecule is the smallest unit of most compounds
• Van der Waals Forces are a slight attraction that develops between the oppositely charges regions of nearby molecules
• What is a Water Molecule?
  • H₂0 is neutral (10 protons and 10 electrons).  The oxygen atom has a much stronger attraction than the hydrogen atom.  The charges are uneven which is called a Polar molecule.  A water molecule is polar because there is an uneven distribution between the oxygen and the hydrogen atoms.
• Cohesion is an attraction between molecules of the same substance.
• Adhesion is an attraction between molecules of different substances
• Solutions are a mixture 2 or more substances in which the molecules of the substances are evenly distributed.
  • Solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent to make a solution
  • Solvent is a substance in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution
• Suspensions are mixtures of water and nondissolved materials
• pH Scale is a measurement system used to indicate the concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) in solutions; ranges from 0 to 14
• An Acid is a compound that forms hydrogen ions (H+) in solutions.  On pH Scale 0-6
• A base is a compound that produces hydroxide ions (OH-ions) in solutions.  On pH Scale 7-14
• Buffers are weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to help prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH.
• Monomers are small units that can join together with other small units to from polymers
• Polymers are large compounds from combinations of many monomers
• What are Carbohydrates?
  • Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
    • Monosaccharides are a single sugar molecule.  They are the monomer of the Carbohydrates.
    • Polysaccharides are a large macromolecule formed from monosaccharides.  They are the polymers of the Carbohydrates.
• What are Lipids?
  • Lipids are macromolecules made mainly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; include fats, oils, and waxes
• Nucleic Acids are macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus.  They store hereditary or genetic info.  There are 2 kinds; ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
  • Nucleotide is a monomer of nucleic acids made up of a –5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• Protein is a macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth and to make up enzymes. * Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes.  Some are used for bone and muscles.  Others transport substances into or out of the cell or help fight disease.
  • Amino Acids are compounds with an amino group (-NH₂) on one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
• What do chemical reactions involve?
  • They involve the breaking down of bonds in reactants and the formation of new bonds in products.
• Chemical Reactions are processes that change 1 set of chemicals into another set of chemicals.
• Reactants are elements or compounds that enters into a chemical reaction
• Products are the elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction.
• EXAMPLE OF CHEMICAL REACTION:
  • CO₂ + H₂O                   H₂CO₃

H₂CO₃                               CO₂ + H₂O

• What are enzymes?
  • Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts.
    • Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions that take place in the cells.
• Substrates are the reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.

 Common Metric Units

  LENGTH                                                   MASS

                   1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)                               1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)

                        1 meter = 1000 millimeters (mm)                                    1 gram = 1000 milligrams (mg)

                        1000 meters = 1 kilometer (km)     

                         1000 kilograms = 1 metric ton (t)

    Volume                                                  TEMPERATURE        

 1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL)                                     0°C= freezing point of water

  1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters (cm³)                             100°C= boiling point of water

          Chapter 7-Cells

• What is “Cell theory”?
  • All living things are composed of cells
  • Cells are the basic units of structure & function in living things
  • New cells are produced from existing cells
• A cell is a collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier the separates the cell from its surroundings; basic unit of all forms of life.
• What are the basic cell structures?
  • Cell membrane
  • Cell Wall
• Cell membrane is a thin, flexible barrier around a cell; regulates what enters and exits the cell
• Cell wall is a strong layer around the cell membrane in plants
• A nucleus is a small, dense region within most nuclei in which the assembly of ribosome begins
• Cytoplasm is the material inside the cell membrane—but not including the nucleus
• Prokaryotes are singe-celled micro organisms that lacks of a nucleus
• Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain nuclei
• An organelle is a specialized structure that performs important cellular functions within the eukaryotic cell
• What is the main function of the cell wall?
  • Is to provide support and protection for the cell
• What does the nucleus control?
  • It controls the cell processes and contains the hereditary info of the DNA
• The granular material visible within the nucleus is call chromatin.  It’s consisting of DNA bound to protein.
• When a cell divides, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.  These are distinct, threadlike structures containing the genetic info that is passed from 1 generation to the next.
• Most nuclei also contain a small, dense region known as nucleolus.   The function is to begin the assembly of ribosomes
• A double-membrane layer called the nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus.  It allows material to move into and out of the nucleus.
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell.  It is a network of protein filaments that helps the cell maintain its shape.  It is also involved in many forms of cell movement.
• Microtubules are hollow tubes of protein. They are within the cytoskeleton.
• Microfilaments are long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell.
• Proteins are assembled on ribosomes.  They are small particles made of RNA and protein.  They produce protein following coded instructions that from the nucleus.
• Eukaryotic cells also contain an internal membrane system known as the endoplasmic reticulum, or ER.  The endoplasmic reticulum is the organelle in which components of the cell membrane are assembled and some proteins are modified.
• Proteins produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum move into a stack of membranes called the Golgi apparatus.   Enzymes in the GA attach carbohydrates and lipids to proteins.
• Lysosomes are small organelles filled with enzymes.  1 function is to break down lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins from food into particles that can be used by the rest of the cell.
• Cells often store materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates in saclike structures known as vacuoles. 
• The chloroplasts are found in plants and some other organisms.  Chloroplasts use energy from the sunlight to make energy-rich food molecules in a process known as photosynthesis.
• The mitochondria are organelles that release energy from stored food molecules.  Mitochondria use energy from food to make high-energy compounds that the cell can use to power growth, development, and movement.
• The core of nearly all cell membranes is a double-layered sheet called a liquid bilayer.  It gives the cell membrane a tough, flexible structure that forms a strong barrier between the cell and its surroundings.
• Diffusion is the process by which molecules move from an area where they are more concentration to an area of lower concentration.
• Concentration the mass of solute in a given volume of solution, or mass/volume
• Selectively permeable is when membranes only allow certain substances to pass through
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through the selectively permeable membrane
• Facilitated diffusion is the movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
• Active transport is a energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
• Endocytosis is a process by which a cell takes material into the cell by enfolding of the cell membrane
• Phagocytosis is a process by which extensions of cytoplasm surround & engulf large particles & take them into the cell
• Exocytosis is a process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
• Multicellular organisms have cell specialization, or separate roles for each type of cell.  Cells in multicellular organisms are specialized to perform particular functions with the organisms.
• What are the levels of organization in multicellular organisms?
  • Individual cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
• Tissue is a group similar to cells that perform a particular function
• Organs are a group of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions
• Organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function

Chapter 8- Photosynthesis

• Where do plants get the energy they need to produce food?
  • Form light from the sun
• Autotrophs are organisms that can capture energy and make food from sunlight.
• Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot produce their own food so they consume it from other organisms  
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is one of the principal chemical compounds that living things use to store energy.
• What is the equation for photosynthesis?
  •         6CO₂        + 6H₂O                                           C₆H₁₂0₆ + 6O2  
  • Carbon dioxide + water    which light makes      glucose  + oxygen
• What does photosynthesis require?

1.        H₂O

2.        Carbon

3.        Light

4.        Chlorophyll

• Chlorophyll is a principal pigment of plants and other photosynthetic organisms; captures light energy.
• Pigments are a light-absorbing colored molecule
• Tlylakoids are a saclike body in chloroplast made of photosynthetic membranes that contain photo systems
• A stroma is a region outside the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts
• NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a electron carrier involved in glycolysis
• Light-dependent reactions are reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH
• What do light-dependent reactions do?
  • They produce oxygen gas and converts ADP and NADP+ inot energy carriers ATP and NADPH
• ATP synthase is a large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP
• The Calvin Cycle are reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars
• What does the Calvin Cycle use and produce?
  • It uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions
  • It produces high-energy sugars

Chapter 9-Cellular Respiration

• A calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise temperature of 1g of water 1 Celsius Degree
• Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy by breaking down food molecules in the presence oxygen
• What is the equation for C.R?
  •      6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆                 6CO₂     + 6H2O + Energy
  • oxygen + glucose                                 Carbon dioxide    +  water    + energy
• Glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose is broken in half, producing 1 molecule of pyruvic acid (a 3-carbon compound).  Takes place in the cytosol.  It makes 2 ATP and loads buses (NAD+ à NADH).
  • 6 glucose goes in and 2 ATP, 2 buses filled, 2 pyruvic made
• NAD+ is an electron carrier in the process of glycolysis
• Fermentation releases energy from food molecules in the absence of oxygen
• What are the 2 main types of fermentation?
  • Alcoholic
  • Lactic Acid
• What does Alcoholic fermentation involve and what is its chemical equation?
  • Yeasts and other organisms
  • Pyruvic acid + NADH                            alcohol + CO₂ + NAD+
• What does Lactic Acid involve and what is its chemical equation?
  • Muscles
  • Pyruvic acid + NADH                            lactic acid + NAD+
• A stage of C.R. is the Kreb’s Cycle.  During the Kreb’s Cycle, pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions.  It takes place in the matrix (middle area of the mitochondrion).  The Kreb’s Cycle generates up to 2 ATP.
  • Acetyl and CO₂ is thrown out in beginning of cycle, extra go on buses
  • Recharges ATP
• Aerobic means to require oxygen
• After the Kreb’s Cycle comes the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).  The ETC uses the high-energy electrons from the Kreb’s Cycle to convert ADP into ATP.  ATP synthase is involved with converting ADP into ATP.  Electrons power H+ ions to power the ATP synthase, which makes ATP.  The electrons go along the chain (of proteins) on NADH and FADH₂.

Chapter 10- Cell Growth and Division

·         What problems does growth cause for cells?

o        The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell places on its DNA and the more trouble the cell has moving enough nutrient and wastes across the cell membrane

·         Cell division is a process by which a cell divides into 2 new daughter cells

·         Surface area of a cell = (length x width x 6)

·         Volume of a cell = (length x width x height)

·         Ratio of surface area to volume = SA divided by V =?:?

·         Chromatids are one of two identical sister parts of a duplicated chromosome

·         Centromere is an area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

·         Interphase is the period of the cell cycle between cell divisions

·         What happens during the cell cycle?

o        A cell grows, prepares fro divisions, and divides to form 2 daughter cells each of which then begins the cycle again

·         How do biologist divide the events of mitosis?

o        They divide mitosis into 4 phases

1.        Prophase

2.        Metaphase

3.        Anaphase

4.        Telophase

·         Prophase is the 1^st and longest stage of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on opposite sides of the nucleus

·         Centrioles are one of two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near the nuclear envelope

·         Spindles are fanlike microtubules structures that help separate the chromosomes during mitosis

·         Metaphase is the 2^nd phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

·         Anaphase is the 3^rd phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs separate and move towards opposite poles

·         Telophase is the 4^th and final stage of mitosis, during which the chromosomes begin to disperse into a tangle of dense material

·         Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm during cell division

·         Cyclin is one of a family of closely related proteins that regulate the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells

·         Cancer is a disorder in which some of the body’s own cells lose the ability to control growth   

·         What happens with cancer in cells

o        Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of most cells.  As a result, they form masses of cells called tumors that can damage the surrounding tissues

·         Promoters are the regions of DNA that indicates to an enzyme where to bind to make RNA

·         Introns are intervening sequences of DNA; does not code for a protein

·         Exons expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein

·         Codons are 3-nucleotide sequences on a mRNA that codes for a single amino acids

·         Translation is the decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain

o        During which, the cell uses info from mRNA to produce proteins

·         Anticodon is a group of 3 bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon

·         Mutation is the change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic info 

·         What do gene mutations result from?

o        Results from changes in a single gene.  Chromosomal mutations involve changes in whole chromosomes

·         Point mutations are mutations that affect a single nucleotide, usually by substituting one nucleotide for another

·         Frame-shift mutations are mutations that shift the reading frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide

·         An operon is group of genes operating together

·         How are lac genes turned off?

o        They are turn off by repressors and turned on by the presence of lactose

·         An operator is a region of chromosome in a operon to which the repressor binds when is turned off

·         What is Eukaryotic Gene Regulation?

o        Most Eukaryotic genes are controlled individually and have regulatory sequences that are much more complex than those of the lac operon

·         Hox genes are a series of genes that control the organs and tissues that develop in various parts of an embryo

Chapter 12- DNA & RNA

·         Transformation is the process by which 1 strain of bacteria is changed by a gene from another strain of bacteria

·         What did Avery and other scientists discover?

o        They discovered that DNA is the nucleic acid that stores and transmits the genetic info from 1 generation of an organism to the next

·         Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria

·         What did Hershey and Chase conclude?

o        They concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein

·         Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids that are made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

·         What are Chargaff’s Rules?

o        A=T and G=C

o        Adenine = Thymine & Guanine = Cytosine

·         What did Watson & Crick discover?

o        They discovered that the model of DNA was a double-helix, in which 2 strands of DNA were would around each other

·         Base pairing is the principle that bonds in DNA can form only between adenine and thymine and also between guanine and cytosine

·         Chromatin is a granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins

·         Histone is a globular protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin

·         Replication is the copying process by which a cell duplicates its DNA

·         What happens in DNA replication?

o        The DNA molecule separates into 2 strands

o        Then produces 2 new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing

o        Each strand of the double-helix of DNA serves as a template, or model, for the new strand

·         DNA polymerase is an enzyme that proofreads new DNA strands, helping to ensure that each molecule is a nearly perfect copy of the original

·         What are the 3 main types of RNA

o        Messenger RNA (mRNA)

o        Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

o        Transfer RNA (tRNA)

·         Messenger RNA is a RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino-acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell

·         Ribosomal RNA is a type of RNA that makes up the major part of ribosomes

·         Transfer RNA is a type of RNA that transfers amino-acids to ribosomes during Protein Synthesis

·         Transcription is a process by which part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied into a complementary sequence in RNA

·         RNA polymerase is an enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA & separates the DNA strands during transcription

·         What goes on during transcription?

o        During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands.  RNA polymerase then uses 1 strand of DNA as template from which nucleotides are assembled into a new strand of RNA

·         What happens in cell transformation?

o        A cell takes in DNA from outside the cell.  This external DNA becomes a part of the cells DNA

·         A plasmid is a circular DNA molecule found in bacteria

·         A genetic marker is a gene that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carries a plasmid with foreign DNA from those that don’t

·         What happens if transformation is successful?

o        The recombinant DNA is integrated into one of the chromosomes of the cell

o        Recombinant technology is combining DNA from 2 or more species to make a product molecule.

Chapter 18- Classification and Chapter 19- Viruses

·         How are living things organized for study?

o        To study the diversity of life, biologists use a classification system to name organisms and group them in a logical manner

·         In taxonomy, scientists classify organisms and assign each organisms a universally accepted name

·         Binomial nomenclature is the classification system in which each species is assigned a 2-part scientific name

·         Genus is a group closely related species, first part of the scientific name in binomial nomenclature

·         Taxon is a group or level of organization into which organisms are classified

·         What is Linnaeus’s system?

o        Its uses 7 taxonomic categories.  Therefore, from smallest to largest; species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom

·         Family is a group genera that share many characteristics

·         Order is a group of similar families

·         Class is a group if similar orders

·         Phylum is a group of closely related classes

·         Kingdom is the largest taxonomic group, consisting of closely related phyla.

·         What is the 6-kingdom system of classification?

o        It includes the kingdoms Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

·         Domain is the most exclusive taxonomic category; layer than a kingdom

·         What are the 3 domains?

o        Bacteria, which corresponds to the kingdom Eubacteria

o        Archaea, which corresponds to the kingdom Archaebacteria

o        Eukarya, which is composed of Protists, Fungi, plants and animals

·         Bacteria is the domain of unicellular prokaryotes whose cell walls contains peptideoglycan

·         Eubacteria kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptideoglycan

·         Archaebacteria kingdom of unicellular prokaryotes that have cells walls that don no contain peptideoglycan

·         Eukarya domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including Protists, Fungi, plants and animals

·         Protista- kingdom composed of eukaryotes that are not classified as plants, animals, or fungi

·         Fungi- kingdom composed of heterotrophs; many obtain energy and nutrients from dead organic matter

·         Plantae- multicellular photosynthetic autotrophs that have cell walls containing cellulose

·         Animalia- kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic heterotrophs whose cells do not have cell walls

·         Prokaryotes- are single celled organisms that lack a nucleus

·         Viruses are particles made up of nucleic acid, and in some cases lipids, that can replicate only by inflecting living cells

o        A typical virus is composed of a core of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat

·         A Capsid is the outer protein coat of a virus

Chapter 35.1

• Homeostasis
• Thermoregulation
• Cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism